Radiocarbon Dating in Archeology

Radiocarbon Dating in Archeology The science of archaeology has undeniably enriched mankind’s history and has helped to quench the quest to understand our past cultures in a better way. Understanding the age and period of existence of the excavated fossils and other organic objects will help the archaeologist to unravel human history and evolution in a scrupulous manner (Taylor 24). Archaeologists utilize one of the revolutionary methods called the radio carbon dating to determine the approximate age of the organic materials including plant and animal parts up to 50000 years (Long). Radiocarbon dating technique is primarily based on the radioactive decay of Carbon-14 isotope. Developed by a team of researchers under the leadership of Dr. Willard Libby, this technique had revolutionized the way the archaeological advancements are made in learning about the past civilization and cultures, changes occurred in the earth and in its climate. Radiocarbon dating enable archaeologists to provide proof of authenticity to the excavated artifacts’ period of usage and thus by collaborating with the efforts with historians and anthropologists, the unwritten history can be precisely explained. Significance Desmond Clark (1979) opinions that if radio carbon dating technique were not discovered, we would still be foundering in a sea of imprecisions sometime bred of inspired guesswork but more often of imaginative speculation (Clark, 1979:7). According to Higham (1999) C14 method can be described as ‘the radio carbon revolution’ which has significantly impacted our understanding about evolution and also cultural emergence of human species. Taylor (1987) suggests C-14 technique as one of the most significant discoveries of 20thcentury that touches the realms of many disciplines including archaeology. Prior to the development of radiocarbon dating it was difficult to determine the age of the artifacts unless it was accompanied with some chronologically specific things like a coin. Otherwise archaeologists had to resort t to the method of relative dating where by comparing with stratigraphically close objects [objects which are buried at the same depth will be approximately of t he same era.] clue regarding the time period and historical styles were assumed or rather guesstimated. But the advent of carbon-14 dating tools has opened up the new scope of absolute dating where scientists could predict the age of excavated artifacts and objects with great precision up to 50,000 years old. For example, if a tree was found to be used in an excavated piece of architecture, by determining the age of the tree or the period when the tree was cut down for construction, the era to which the excavated architecture exactly belongs can be estimated (Michels, J W). The Method of Carbon-14 Technique Archaeologists rely on the various radiometric dating techniques- based on the radioactive properties of unstable chemical atoms to determine the age of the materials. Researchers from the field of Physics have discovered that radioactive molecules are unstable and they undergo decay to attain a stable structure at a specific rate which is directly determined by the atomic number and mass of the decaying atom (Polach, H.A and. Currie, L.A). Based on this constant of the radioisotope of carbon, 14-C or carbon -14 the age of the organic material is assessed. In the biosphere carbon-14 is created by the collision of a neutron, exited by the cosmic ray collides with a nitrogen atom. The isotope of carbon thus produced is radioactive and it will undergo decay at a constant rate (Berger and H.E Suess). The carbon isotope is also absorbed during photosynthesis by plants and reaches animal body when they consume plant parts. It also reaches the organisms through respiration along with normal carbon-12. It is assumed that in a living object carbon-14 which undergoes decay is replaced at a steady rate. The carbon dating technique takes the assumption that al l livings have fairly same percentage of 14C isotope in their body and also that the ratio of carbon-12 to carbon -14 present in the biosphere and inside the living plants and animals remain constant. After the death of the organism the carbon intake is stopped. Then the amount of carbon-12 in the body will not reduce but the amount of carbon-14 undergoes reduction due its radioactivity. Carbon-14 isotope will undergo decay at an exponential rate to form the stable nitrogen-14.Thus by comparing the relative quantity of carbon -12 and carbon -14 in an organic matter excavated scientists can predict the age of the object (R.E Taylor and M.J Aitken). The following equation is used to determine the carbon-14 decay. Where N is the current amount, N_o is the original amount, lambda is the proportionality constant for the growth rate (which is negative for decay), and t is the amount of time that has passed. Figure: 1 Carbon -14 lifecycle. Source: (Brain, 2014) The half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years. This implies that it takes 5730 years for half of the 14C atoms in the organic matter to get decayed. When an organism is dead the intake of the carbon-14 stops and in a 5730 year time period, half of the amount of carbon-14 present in the organic matter would have undergone beta decay to form stable Nitrogen-14. The burning of a small piece of the excavated organic matter and measuring the electrons emitted during the process by the decaying carbon-14 by radiation counters enable to quantify the amount of carbon -14 present in the material. This data will help the scientists to relationship of Nitrogen-14 and Carbon-14 atom and can be used to predict the age of the artifact directly. Limitations This method assumes that the ratio of C-14 to C-12 in the atmosphere and in the living organism will be a constant. But studies have showed a slight fluctuation in this ratio over the millennia and hence there is a possibility and consequent discrepancy in calculation too (Currie). Another limitation is the difficulty in estimating the age of things which are older than 50000 years as the amount of C-14 in such samples become absolutely undetectable due to complete decay. Conclusion Despite all the limitations radio carbon dating will remain as a significant tool for archaeologist around the globe to compare and understand the evolution of human culture and civilization. Advancements in this field like accelerator techniques of carbon-14 dating (C. Tuniz, J.R Bird, D.Fink, and G.F Herzog 60) conducted with the help of mass spectrometer have increased the range of the technique up to 100000 years (Nave). Thus undoubtedly radiocarbon dating remains one of the significant tools for the archaeologist to explain the evolution and cultural emergence in a more accurate manner. Works cited Brain, Marshall. How Carbon-14 Dating Works. 03 October 2000. HowStuffWorks.com.  http://science.howstuffworks.com/carbon-14.htm> 18 March 2009. Berger and H.E Suess (eds.). University of California Press, Los Angeles.. 1979: Pp. 7-31. Print Clark, J.D. Radiocarbon Dating and African Prehistory. In, Radiocarbon Dating. Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference, Los Angeles and La Jolla, 1976. Currie, LLoyd A. The Remarkable Metrological History Of Radiocarbon Dating [II]. Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology 109.2 (2004): 185-217 Higham, Thomas. The Method. 1999. http://www.c14dating.com/int.html.04 Nov 2014. Long, Kelly. Why Is Radiocarbon Dating Important to Archaeology. California State Parks.http://www.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=24000> 1 March 2009. Michels, J W. Dating methods in archaeology. Seminar Press, 1973. Nave, R. Accelerator techniques for carbon dating. http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/hbase/nuclear/cardat.html>15 April 2009. Polach, H.A and. Currie, L.A. Exploratory analysis of the international radiocarbon cross- calibration data: consensus values and interlaboratory error. Preliminary note. Radiocarbon,. 1980: -35-933.Print. Taylor, R.E. 1987. Radiocarbon Dating. An archaeological perspective. Academic Press, Orlando, USA. Taylor R.E and M.J Aitken. (eds) 1997. Chronometric dating in Archaeology. Advances in Archaeological and Museum Science, volume 2. Oxford University, England Tuniz, J.R Bird, D.Fink, and G.F Herzog.. Accelerator Mass Spectrometry: Ultrasensitive analysis for global science. CRC Press. 1998.

Importance of Lying Essay

Dishonesty is, and has been, a vital piece of human culture since the beginning of time. Through the need to improve and compete, this trait developed into sneaking and trickery, but eventually gave way to lying and deceit. Stephanie Ericsson’s article, â€Å"The Ways We Lie,† is a blunt take on the negative effects associated with the act of lying. She covers the topic from many different angles, dissecting why each type of lying is destructive to others, but she neglects to think of the beneficial aspects of the activity that have structured civil society around the globe. Without various types of lies, humans would be unable to compete against each other in the 21st century version of natural selection that is present in the world today. In order to be successful in life, elaboration and embellishment are necessary on a daily basis. These facades are fragile lies though, that are often disproved and discredited, hence the evolution of defense mechanisms used by us that rely on more deception to gain advantages. This chaotic scene of embellishment and defense mechanisms would make society near impossible if it wasn’t for our susceptibility to common ignorance. All civilizations form under the same beliefs, whether they’re true or not, bringing us to where we are today, a society that relies on the uses of facades, omission and deflection in order to function. With the era of technology, social networking, and mass media, human interaction has become much more frequent and scrutinized; every word that is said is judged instantly. Thus comes the necessity of facades for the sake of survival of the fittest. It is natural human instinct to go for the â€Å"fittest mate,† and in this day and age, that doesn’t mean most physically able. Character is a factor, and self-presentation, multiple different things that don’t come naturally to everyone, but anyone can put on a facade and present themselves as whatever they so please. The social advantage of putting a mask on and embellishing oneself to attract any sort of benefits whether they be romantic, financial, or professional. In America, there is an idea of an â€Å"ideal life,† commonly known as the â€Å"American Dream,† is a common goal that most citizens share to get a job, house and family, and the most efficient way to get there is through elaborate facades. The brutal side of the â€Å"American Dream† type natural selection mostly lies in the selfish aspects of it. Developing through this survival of the wittiest requires a thick shield of defense mechanisms in order to compete verbally. Humans use forms of lying that Stephanie Ericsson lists as deflection and omission. A man using his original facade to improve his live is at the scrutiny of his peers in the sense that his facade may be discovered, but developed defenses even the playing field so that lies may stay hidden. Stephanie describes deflection as instead defending oneself, going on the offensive. This defense mechanism draws attention away from whatever lies you may hold a bring other issues to the table, holding whatever facades may be hidden deep inside. Omission allows the liar to pick and choose what parts of the truth are told when they are, so the collaboration of omission with deflection creates a shield of misinformation and uncertainty that can deflect attempts to discredit and help grant people benefits all throughout their lives. But, with these fake personalities, and the reliance humans have on defense mechanisms to protect those personalities, how can people coexist with any trust at all? The answer lies within people’s susceptibility to ignorance on a massive scale, and their quickness to accept common knowledge for fact. The form of lying Stephanie calls ‘Groupthink’ suggests that humans rely more on the loyalty of the group than on any other sources. This is the lie that can be associated with all societies, civilizations, religions, and superstitions. People who all believe in the same things align with each other and defend the similar facades they have with their own uses of deflection and omissions to protect their group beliefs. Stephanie Ericsson seems to wish for an end to lying in general, but lying has been an essential part of human evolution and natural selection since social interactions have been in existence. The theory of groupthink is reflected on the devout nationality of people around the world, and the influence that facades such as religion have over people’s lives. Without these fundamental lies, there’s no telling where human history would be. Our dishonesty and ignorance have shaped and molded us just how predators have molded prey throughout history.

Mobile Technologies

We are indeed living in a very fast-paced world. Everything seems to be found on the World Wide Web, communication is instant, and there are countless of technologies developed that would make our lives easier. These technologies, or most of them, aimed to make the world connected, so that communication is possible beyond distance, space, location or time. The history of communication would show us the developments and significance of communication in our everyday lives. The need for an efficient communication has led to the technologies that make communication faster. From messengers as a way to deliver the message in the old times to telegraphs and to telephones in the present time, communication has gone a long way. But the fact is that it didn’t stop there. Today, we can communicate through the vast choices of technologies such as cellular phones, pagers and computers. Further developments continue until today. These technologies have become mobile, meaning we can communicate with others, conduct business and be entertained on the go without being confined to one place, as is the case with desktops (Farooq & Carroll n.d.). Thus, we call them mobile technologies. Many studies were conducted about different mobile technologies that can be offered to consumers. One thing those studies have in common is that they showed how important these technologies became, as shown by the demand for them. One significant aspect of mobile technologies is in the area of business. One does not really have to be in his office in front of the computer when conducting business. Even when he eats lunch, he can tie a deal with just a few clicks on his phone or palmtop. It is important to note that with the rise of these mobile technologies, certain things have changed. One example is how we conceptualize things, such as place, locality and physical presence. This paper will try to delve into the role and importance of these mobile technologies and how they affect our conceptualization of place, locality and physical presence. Mobile Technologies on Place and Locality Mobility is fundamentally associated with location (Farooq & Carroll n.d.). The question that arises in connection with this is, how does location bring possibilities for the mobile user? Farooq and Carroll mentioned that location-based or place-based awareness for the users can be augmented by the use of Global Positioning System (GPS). The use of GPS will surely bring research possibilities and richer user interaction. According to the article â€Å"Locality in the Age of Virtual Transcendence,† the people’s experiences of place, locale in particular, are bound with the idea of distance. It adds that locale is a â€Å"human-centric concept† which exhibits a spatial relationship between presence – a mobile, for example – and a â€Å"perceivably stationary place.† Moreover, since humans cannot be at more than one location at a given time, this becomes an existential constraint. Today, however, we all experience transition into the virtual extensions of the physical world. Due to the technological advances, temporal and spatial distances have been overcome. In fact, two subjects can dwell in the same place in sound and image despite the physical distance. They can share a virtual space through avatars (Internet user’s representation of her or him) and can access physical spaces through webcams and satellite broadcasts. The article concluded that being at more than one location at the same time has risks. It says that man’s need to conquer distance and break the boundaries of locality may mean the loss of the possibility for transcendence (â€Å"Locality† n.d.). Meyrowitz (2004) agrees with this. He says that a person cannot occupy two places at the same time regardless of the sophistication the technologies offer. He adds that â€Å"the localness of experience is a constant.† The concept of locality persists in our everyday lives. Our basic needs must be â€Å"met locally.† We are also grateful for the local convenience stores when we need something. Meyrowitz (2004) mentions that although locality plays a role in the way we sense the world, those entities that we sense are not just local. Why? It’s because media have extended our perceptual field. He furthered that with the rise of mobile and immobile technologies, the people near us have less influence as they use technologies to interact with others who are more distant but still are local and accessible. Media have also influenced us in a way that we perceive our community as not just the community but one of the many communities where we could live. Our locality, we realize, is not the center of the universe, nor our physical surroundings the foundation of our experiences (Meyrowitz 2004). With the rise of mobile technologies, or those devices that we can carry around and still be connected to the world, we have conquered the concept of place. We can always communicate with our families or friends no matter where we are (as long as there is a signal). This is probably one of the advantages of these mobile technologies. Unlike desktop computers, radios or bulky devices, handheld and portable ones such as cellular phones and laptops and iPods can be carried around and some can even do business while riding the train. The new technologies have enable people to share information with others who are in different localities. Imagine that long ago, we couldn’t have reached the people who are in far localities in the same way we now do. Mobile, and immobile, technologies have enabled us to have access on our families and friends no matter where we are or where they are. In an article of O’Hara, Brown and Perry (2003), they believed that the concept of place in relation to mobility can afford various possibilities for â€Å"ongoing configuration of relationships with other people, and even for performing actions and for habitual action.† However, the configuration of place means more than just location. Technologies have important roles in making work possible for those mobile workers in different places, and devices such as mobile phone and networked laptop make these possible. The authors also mentioned that mobile workers can transform any place, be it restaurants, cafes or bars, into places of work. These leisure spaces become invaded by the mobile technologies. In fact, a testimony to this is the ring of the mobile phone in any of these places (O’Hara, Brown & Perry 2003). Ito (n.d.) mentioned that â€Å"place and locality is a technology-enabled achievement.† This is probably because with technologies in our hands, place and locality is not a hindrance. We can communicate, do business, and be entertained in places that seemed impossible in the first place. Perlman (2005) added that technologies have made the Internet to be anywhere. In fact, they can even bring the Internet into the streets. When we look around us, we see people holding phones where they can access the Internet, or typing in a laptop. Perlman also said that people used to just view webpage, but now they can also create them. However, Farooq and Carroll (n.d.) countered by saying that users of mobile technologies have no access to peers or resources compared to desktop users. This is because mobile users are in a different contextual situation since everything within the environment has changed. The authors said that this usually leads to uncertainty, or heterogeneity. Moreover, mobile users of these technologies do not have much control over the configuration of their environment. Thus, they do not have much control on the way they manage work. People began to subscribe to these mobile technologies for whatever they’re worth. Today there are cellular phones that can help in tracking another person through location-awareness and presence. There are also phones that can receive information about that house you want to buy through a transmitter. Moreover, some phones today have built-in Global Positioning System (GPS) and outfitted with WiFi (Wireless Fidelity) technology. All of these are created to enhance communication or social networking or business (Smith & Grubb 2004). Meyrowitz (2004) mentioned that through the electronic media (including the mobile technologies), people have become emotionally attached to certain places. Just think that long ago, when we are moving in another locality, we miss our old place along with its people and places and the experiences we have gathered there. But the media have helped us in a way that â€Å"we can now transport most of our nexus interactions with us wherever we go† (6). Smith and Grubb (2004) reported that consumers and businesses using location-aware computing will increase from 150,000 to 42 million in just three years. This was brought about by the 1996 FCC mandate that requires mobile carriers to find any subscriber making an emergency call to within 50 to 100 meters. They added that through location-awareness and presence, both of which enable a device to be geographically located, the way people use networked services will still change. Moreover, designers of such technologies are finding out ways that location-awareness, mobility and presence can further improve each service and application so that they can offer their users superior experience. Mobile Technologies on Physical Presence Through mobile technologies, one doesn’t really have to be with the person he communicates with just to talk with him or send him a message. This is one of the advantages offered by the mobile technologies. Today there are 3G (third generation) phones that enable someone to communicate with another while looking at that person on the phone. Several companies can also do a meeting while on different countries through a screen where they can see each other. It’s almost face to face. Farooq and Carroll (n.d.) believed that a sense of physical presence is associated with a common place wherein people meet and interact. But Harper, Goble and Pettitt (2004) argued that today, the virtual world tends to be more respected than the physical. They have mentioned that people are becoming too reliant on the ‘net’ because it is their gateway to other worlds or their way of communicating with remote people and a better form of self-expression. Moreover, the focus on the virtual distorts our perception in overestimating the importance of these technologies. As a result, the local environment becomes ignored when it comes to information giving. Harper, Goble and Pettitt (2004) added that the virtual and the physical must be connected because the latter is important to realize the full potential and importance of the virtual world. They also suggested that the ‘net’ and the mobile technologies must relate to the users’ physical location and real-world artifacts to be able to arrive at choices and decisions about what information will be useful or required. Smith and Grubb (2004) said that the introduction of the aspect of presence will bring changes in the way we use person-to-person communication media and will influence network service. For instance, when we know the location of a family member in advance, it eliminates the need to send a voice call when the reason for calling is to find out that information. Moreover, if we know the mood and activity of that person, we can determine the method of communication that is appropriate. Another example is that, if we want to call a friend just for a friendly chat, it would be better to know first if he is not busy or in a bad mood. In the same way, if I need to contact an associate about an urgent business decision, I would like for him to know this urgency so that he can let me know what he thinks. Farooq and Carroll (n.d.) commented that handheld devices are now engrained in our everyday lives. But that would mean we should consider the existing application and how the standard will change with the emerging mobile technologies. They added that handheld technologies, which are also mobile in a sense, can create even better interactions and consequences for different users, whether they are in their homes or outside. This just shows that the addition of mobility to the various technological devices will supply more channels of communication that are beyond the exchange of information. Rheingold (2005), along with some friends, has interviewed several mobile technologies users, preferably those who use telephones. Their survey showed that the people of Shibuya, particularly the teenagers, were very much into sending text messages and ring tones and logos. In fact, they are called â€Å"the thumb tribe† (Rheingold 2005). The article also showed that the advent of mobile phones in Japan has freed youth in one way or another. It was mentioned that they are no longer constrained by the landline shared by inquisitive family members. Mobile phones have offered youth privacy, something the landline cannot give them. This is just one of the reasons why the mobile phones started an intergenerational power shift in the country (Rheingold 2005). More and more developments will arise that would further affect how we conceptualize place, locality and physical presence. One thing is for sure: these technological developments are there to help us in making our lives easier and giving us richer experiences. However, as these technological advancements cannot be avoided and must be embraced to realize their full potential, users must bear in mind that they must still appreciate and give importance to the things that would somehow affect them. It is still better to go visit and see our friends and families no matter how far they are and despite that mobile phone in our pockets. And it is still better to treasure the places and the locality that have been a part of our lives. References The Beginnings of Communication. N.d. Swinburne University of Technology. Farooq, U. & Carroll, J.M. n.d. Mobilizing Community Networks. Center for Human Computer Interaction, Department of Computer Science, Virginia Polytechnic and State University. Harper, S., Goble, C., & Pettitt, S. 7 April 2004, ‘Proximity: Walking the Link.’ Journal of Digital Information, Vol. 5, Issue 1, viewed 31 October 2007, . Ito, Mizuko. Network Localities: Identity, Place and Digital Media, viewed 31 October 2007, . Globe Newspaper Company. 2006, The Art of Mobile Technology, viewed 31 October 2007 from Boston.com site. Locality in the Age of Virtual Transcendence. N.d. Viewed 31 October 2007 from Between Man and Place, . Meyrowitz, Joshua 2004, The Rise of Glocality: New Senses of Place and Identity in the Global Village. O’Hara, K., Brown, B. & Perry, M. Mobile Work, 2003, Technology and Place. 18:08 Rheingold, Howard 20, July 2005, The Next Social Revolution. Swinburne University of Technology. Basic Books. Smith S. & Grubb J. 2004, Location and Presence in Mobile Data Services, viewed 31 October 2007 from Boxesandarrows site: .   

Week 3 CPMGT 302 Risk Management Paper - 1488 Words

Risks connected with the supplier expansion:- 1. Individual Risks: Stress, No Family Time, Loss of Control. 2. Business Risks: Instability, Ineffective Management, Financial Loss. 3. Focused Risks: Unknown Markets, Aggressive Competitors, Unfamiliar Terrain. Business development brings weights to a framework that might not have had room schedule-wise/experience to get intended up for expanded generation or administrations. New timings of payables/receivables may make monetary strain. Clients may feel underserved. Workers may be uneasy about all the progressions. Developing is the following enormous test for an entrepreneur - its energizing and new. That part is well known. Pushing your current item into new markets, or new items into†¦show more content†¦Simply verify that it is a cognizant decision to acknowledge a certain danger. Reactions for danger opportunities are the converse of the ones for dangers. They will concentrate on looking for dangers, boosting them or disregarding them (if opportunities turn out to be excessively little). Scheduling The planning technique comprised of four (4) stages. The initial three (3) stages are performed under the supervision of the undertaking group and the fourth stage is performed by the site designer to detail the work prerequisites of exercises. The principal stage begins by welcoming topic masters speaking to distinctive exchanges, for example, structural lives up to expectations, electrical, mechanical, and so on. The masters precisely surveyed the errands identified with their zone of mastery and separate them into exercises and sub exercises that might be effectively overseen. They additionally recognize the required assets, and focus the obliged length of time for every movement focused around standard benefit record, and outline the conditions of those exercises. When the work of the Smes is finished, they meet with the scheduler and assessing and arranging chiefs to draw up the starting calendar, expecting boundless assets. At the second stage, the undertaking group surveys the